Forms of threat
Branscombe, Ellemers, Spears, and Doosje outlined different ways identity may feel endangered. The reaction depends strongly on how much the person values the group in the first place.
- Categorization threat: being placed in a group against one's wishes
- Distinctiveness threat: the group is seen as not different from others
- Value threat: the group's worth is undermined
- Acceptance threat: one's position in the group is doubted
Stereotype threat
Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson proposed in 1995 that the risk of confirming a negative stereotype can harm test performance, and reported this among Black students given a task described as diagnostic of ability. Follow-up work extended the idea to women in mathematics and many other groups. The concept became widely influential in education.
Contested evidence
Later analyses have raised doubts about the size of stereotype threat effects. A meta-analysis of studies in girls by Flore and Wicherts found signs of publication bias, and several large replications found small or null results. Other researchers continue to report the effect under specific conditions. Beyond performance, the broader claim that people defend valued identities through in-group favoritism, distancing, or collective action is well supported. Effects depend on group identification, context, and whether status differences seem legitimate.
Further reading
- Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Brooks/Cole.
- Steele, C. M., & Aronson, J. (1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5).
- Flore, P. C., & Wicherts, J. M. (2015). Does stereotype threat influence performance of girls in stereotyped domains? A meta-analysis. Journal of School Psychology, 53(1).